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Stokvels en sosiale kapitaalnetwerke onder Afrika-immigrant-entrepreneurs (Collins Akiy Wung)

Oorpronklike titel van proefskrif: Business resilience through ROSCAs and social capital networks: African immigrant entrepreneurship in Cape Town, South Africa

Studieleier: Lucius Botes (Noord-Wes Universiteit)

Ontwikkelingstudies, Universiteit van Suid-Afrika (Unisa)

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Agtergrond van studie

Afrika-immigrante-entrepreneurs in Kaapstad funksioneer binne ’n uitdagende sosio-ekonomiese omgewing wat gekenmerk word deur beperkte toegang tot hulp van formele finansiële instellings, onvoldoende besigheidsondersteuning, beperkte finansiële reserwes en voortdurende strukturele onsekerheid. Hoewel hierdie entrepreneurs ’n betekenisvolle bydrae tot plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkeling, werkverskaffing en ondernemingsaktiwiteite lewer, word hulle dikwels uit hoofstroom bankstelsels uitgesluit as gevolg van streng vereistes rakende kredietgeskiedenis, sekuriteit, verblyfdokumentasie en administratiewe kostes. Hierdie uitdagings word verder vererger deur hoë werkloosheid, taal- en kulturele hindernisse, beperkte toegang tot markte en beperkte besigheidsopleiding. Gevolglik word baie immigrante gedwing tot selfindiensneming en kleinsakeondernemings as oorlewings- en bestaansstrategieë.

Immigrante-entrepreneurs

’n Afrika-immigrant-entrepreneur is iemand uit ’n Afrikaland wat na Suid-Afrika verhuis het en hier ’n onderneming begin het. Hierdie entrepreneurs bring dikwels unieke perspektiewe, vaardighede en eienskappe na hul ondernemings, gevorm deur hul kulturele agtergrond en migrasie-ervarings. Afrika-immigrant-entrepreneurs beskik oor diverse vaardighede en eienskappe, soos veerkragtigheid, aanpasbaarheid, sterk etniese en gemeenskapsbande, kulturele bevoegdheid, vernuwingsvermoë en kreatiwiteit. Bykomende eienskappe sluit meertaligheid, werksetiek, vasberadenheid en interkulturele bevoegdheid in. Hierdie eienskappe help hulle om uitdagings in nuwe omgewings te oorkom en dra by tot ekonomiese en kulturele diversiteit in gasheerlande.

Die literatuur dui daarop dat immigrante dikwels oor die nodige entrepreneurskapseienskappe beskik wat hul ondernemings se oorlewing en ontwikkeling ondersteun. Hierdie eienskappe sluit opvoeding en vaardighede, vorige werkservaring, vroeë blootstelling aan ondernemende omgewings, aanpasbaarheid, veerkragtigheid, ’n sterk werksetiek en ’n hoë risikotoleransie in. Opvoeding versterk bestuurs- en besluitnemingsvaardighede, terwyl formele en informele leerprosesse entrepreneuriese ontwikkeling ondersteun. Werkservaring dra by tot praktiese kennis van markte, klante/kliënte en bedryfsprosesse, wat ondernemingsrisiko’s verder verminder. Aanpasbaarheid en veerkragtigheid is veral belangrik in nuwe kulturele en ekonomiese omgewings, terwyl ’n bereidheid om risiko’s te neem dikwels ook verband hou met die migrasieproses na Suid-Afrika self.

Immigrante se deelname aan selfindiensneming word deur sowel “stoot”- as “trek”-faktore beïnvloed. Aan die een kant word immigrante dikwels uit die formele arbeidsmark uitgesluit weens verskeie vorme van diskriminasie, xenofobie, onveiligheid, taalprobleme en die beperkte erkenning van kwalifikasies wat in hul tuislande bekom is.

Aan die ander kant word hulle aangetrek deur ekonomiese geleenthede binne etniese markte en gemeenskappe in Suid-Afrika waar bestaande netwerke, ondersteuning en die vraag na entrepreneuriese besighede reeds deur hulle voorgangers gevestig is. Etniese enklaves speel hierin ’n belangrike rol, aangesien geografiese en ekonomiese konsentrasie toegang tot arbeid, klante/kliënte en hulpbronne vergemaklik. Selfindiensneming word dus deur ’n kombinasie van noodsaaklikheid, ekonomiese geleenthede en sosiale netwerke aangedryf.

In Suid-Afrika is immigrante-ondernemings meestal mikro- of klein ondernemings met minder as 10 werknemers en funksioneer hulle hoofsaaklik binne die vervaardiging-, handel- en dienssektore. Voorbeelde sluit in spazawinkels, straatverkopestalletjies, haarsalonne, klein werkswinkels en voedsel- of motorverwante dienste. Hoewel hierdie ondernemings ’n belangrike bydrae tot plaaslike ekonomiese aktiwiteite en werkverskaffing lewer, bly hulle dikwels ondergekapitaliseer, informeel en kwesbaar ten opsigte van ekonomiese probleme. Beperkte toegang tot finansiële hulpbronne, ongunstige besigheidsliggings, taalhindernisse en veiligheidskwessies – insluitend xenofobiese aanvalle en afpersing – beperk dikwels ekonomiese groeimoontlikhede en bedreig die voortbestaan van hierdie ondernemings.

Stokvels en roterende spaar- en kredietverenigings (Roscas)

Om hierdie uitdagings te hanteer, maak immigrante-entrepreneurs toenemend van informele finansiële en sosiale ondersteuningstelsels gebruik, veral roterende spaar- en kredietverenigings (Roscas), in Suid-Afrika algemeen bekend as stokvels. Stokvels is informele selfhelp- finansiële strukture waarin lede gereelde bydraes maak en beurtelings toegang tot die gesamentlike fondse verkry. Die volgorde waarin lede die uitbetaling ontvang, kan wissel en word bepaal deur meganismes soos loting, bodstelsels of die dringendheid van lede se behoeftes. Hierdie stelsels funksioneer op grond van wedersydse vertroue, solidariteit, samewerking en gedeelde verantwoordelikheid. In kontekste waar formele finansiële dienste ontoeganklik is, bied stokvels ’n toeganklike en buigsame alternatief vir entrepreneurs wat kapitaal benodig om ondernemings te begin, kontantvloei te stabiliseer, daaglikse bedrywighede te finansier en ekonomiese skokke te absorbeer.

Benewens hul finansiële funksie vervul stokvels ook ’n belangrike sosiale rol. Hulle dien as platforms vir netwerkvorming, inligtingdeling en gemeenskapsamewerking. Lede deel kennis oor markgeleenthede, veiliger sakegebiede, moontlike verskaffers, kliëntegedrag en besigheidspraktyke. Hierdie sosiale netwerke versterk entrepreneurs se vermoë om kwesbaarheid te beperk en aanpasbare strategieë vir volgehoue ondernemingsbedryf te ontwikkel. Deelname aan stokvels bevorder verder ook finansiële dissipline, spaargedrag, selfbeheersing, risikobestuur en gedeelde leer, wat ondernemings se veerkragtigheid en volhoubaarheid versterk.

Daar bestaan verskillende vorme van Roscas, waaronder gestruktureerde spaar- en beleggingsmodelle, stokvels, sowel as ander, meer buigsame vorme waar uitbetalings aangepas word volgens lede se behoeftes. Hierdie buigsame modelle is besonder relevant binne ekonomies onsekere omgewings waar entrepreneurs gereeld met onvoorspelbare finansiële druk te make het. Hoewel Roscas rentevrye krediet en toeganklike finansiering bied, besit hulle slegs beperkte finansiële kapasiteit en ontbreek gestruktureerde meganismes vir finansiering van grootskaalse langtermynuitbreiding. Roscas is daarom nie bedoel om formele finansiële instellings te vervang nie, maar funksioneer eerder as aanvullende finansiële en sosiale ondersteuningstelsels. Die informele, vertrouensgebaseerde aard van stokvels vorm juis die kern van hul sukses, en daarom kan oorregulering hierdie funksionering ondermyn en kwesbare deelnemers verder benadeel.

Hierdie studie het ondersoek hoe stokvels en ander vorme van sosiale kapitaal die besigheidshanteringsvermoë en veerkragtigheid van Afrika-immigrante-entrepreneurs in Kaapstad kan versterk. Die navorsing het spesifiek gefokus op die wyse waarop informele finansiële en sosiale netwerke entrepreneurs kan help om finansiële dissipline te ontwikkel, toegang tot krediet uit te brei, besigheidsreserwes op te bou, en sosiale ondersteuning te versterk. Die studie is gegrond op die sosialekapitaalteorie, wat beklemtoon hoe vertroue, netwerke, norme, samewerking en inligtingdeling ekonomiese samewerking en kollektiewe aksie moontlik maak. Die term sosiale kapitaal verwys na die netwerk van verhoudings en hulpbronne wat deur individue, groepe of familielede opgebou en benut word om gemeenskaplike doelwitte en belange te bereik. Dit bestaan uit strukturele, relasionele en kognitiewe dimensies wat bepaal hoe hulpbronne soos kennis, vaardighede, inligting en finansiële ondersteuning deur sosiale netwerke gemobiliseer en oorgedra word. Deur hierdie verhoudings bevorder sosiale kapitaal ekonomiese ontwikkeling, versterk dit samewerking en vertroue, en ondersteun dit die vermoë van entrepreneurs om uitdagings te hanteer. Vir klein entrepreneurs is sosiale kapitaal veral belangrik, aangesien dit ekonomiese doeltreffendheid, veerkragtigheid en aanpasbaarheid bevorder en sodoende tot die volhoubaarheid en groei van hul ondernemings bydra.

’n Kwalitatiewe fenomenologiese navorsingsontwerp is gebruik om die beleefde ervarings van Afrika-immigrante-entrepreneurs te ondersoek. Data is deur middel van diepgaande onderhoude en fokusgroepbesprekings onder entrepreneurs uit verskillende Afrika-lande ingesamel. ’n Noodsaaklike kriterium was dat almal lede van stokvels moet wees (of moes gewees het), en gevestigde klein ondernemings in Kaapstad bedryf (het). Die data is deur tematiese ontleding met behulp van Atlas.ti-sagteware geanaliseer om patrone en temas rakende die gebruik van stokvels en sosiale netwerke te identifiseer.

Die bevindinge toon dat deelname aan Roscas en stokvels hoofsaaklik gemotiveer word deur uitsluiting uit formele finansiële stelsels en die behoefte aan toeganklike finansiële ondersteuning. Deelnemers gebruik stokvels om aanvangskapitaal te bekom, besigheidsreserwes op te bou, kontantvloei te bestuur en groter finansiële stabiliteit te handhaaf. Sosiale netwerke binne stokvels speel eweneens ’n kritieke rol, aangesien lede mekaar ondersteun, inligting deel en saamwerk om gemeenskaplike ekonomiese doelwitte te bereik. Hierdie relasionele hulpbronne versterk entrepreneurs se vermoë om risiko’s te bestuur, ekonomiese skokke te absorbeer en volhoubare ondernemingspraktyke te ontwikkel. Die studie bevestig dat finansiële hulpbronne en sosiale kapitaal nou verweef is in die ontwikkeling van ondernemingsveerkragtigheid van Afrika-immigrante-entrepreneurs. Stokvels funksioneer daarom nie bloot as korttermyn- finansiële instrumente nie, maar as strategiese sosio-ekonomiese instellings wat oorlewing, groei en volhoubaarheid bevorder.

’n Belangrike bydrae van die studie is die ontwikkeling van ’n praktiese raamwerk vir die meer doeltreffende benutting van stokvels om finansiële insluiting, besigheidsprestasie en ondernemingsveerkragtigheid te versterk. Die studie brei ook die toepassing van die sosialekapitaalteorie uit na die konteks van immigrante-entrepreneurskap en informele finansiering. Daar word aanbeveel dat beleidsmakers en ondersteuningsinstellings maniere ondersoek om informele finansiële stelsels te ondersteun sonder om hul kernbeginsels van gemeenskapsamewerking, vertroue en buigsaamheid te benadeel.

Ten slotte

Hoewel die studie tot Kaapstad beperk is, lewer dit ’n belangrike bydrae tot die begrip van hoe Afrika-immigrante-entrepreneurs informele finansiële en sosiale stelsels gebruik om ekonomiese uitsluiting te hanteer, ondernemings volhoubaar te bestuur en groter veerkragtigheid binne uitdagende ekonomiese omgewings te ontwikkel. Verdere navorsing word aanbeveel om die voorgestelde raamwerk in ander Suid-Afrikaanse stede en deur middel van kwantitatiewe of gemengde-metode-benaderings verder te toets.

Vakterme

• Afrika-immigrante: Individue wat in Afrika-lande buite Suid-Afrika gebore is en om ekonomiese, sosiale of politieke redes na Suid-Afrika migreer.

• Etniese entrepreneurskap verwys na ’n stel onderling verbonde besigheidsaktiwiteite wat deur individue of groepe uit dieselfde etniese gemeenskappe met ’n gemeenskaplike kulturele agtergrond onderneem word.

• Rosca: Afkorting vir ’n roterende spaar- en kredietvereniging.

• Roterende spaar- en kredietvereniging (Rosca): ’n Groep individue wat ooreenkom om op gereelde basis ’n vasgestelde bedrag geld tot ’n fonds (soortgelyk aan ’n stokvel) by te dra, waarna die totale bedrag aan een lid op ’n keer op ’n roterende basis uitbetaal word.

• Sosiale kapitaal: Die vlak van relasionele vertroue, waardes, norme van wedersydse en onderlinge hulp wat ’n groep individue of gemeenskappe kan gebruik om kollektiewe optrede te fasiliteer.

• Stokvel: Informele selfhelp- finansiële struktuur waarin lede gereelde bydraes maak en beurtelings toegang tot die gesamentlike fondse verkry.

Lees onderstaande Engelse weergawe van die studie ter verwysing:

Business resilience through ROSCAs and social capital networks: African immigrant entrepreneurship in Cape Town, South Africa

Background of the study

African immigrant entrepreneurs in Cape Town operate within a challenging socioeconomic environment characterised by limited access to assistance from formal financial institutions, inadequate business support, limited financial reserves and ongoing structural uncertainty. Although these entrepreneurs make a significant contribution to local economic development, job creation and entrepreneurial activity, they are often excluded from mainstream banking systems due to stringent requirements relating to credit history, collateral, residency documentation and administrative costs. These challenges are further exacerbated by high unemployment, language and cultural barriers, limited market access and insufficient business training. Consequently, many immigrants are compelled to pursue self-employment and small business ventures as survival and livelihood strategies.

An African immigrant entrepreneur is an individual from an African country who has migrated to South Africa and established a business in the country. These entrepreneurs often bring unique perspectives, skills and attributes to their enterprises, shaped by their cultural backgrounds and migration experiences. African immigrant entrepreneurs possess diverse skills and characteristics such as resilience, adaptability, strong ethnic and community ties, cultural competence, innovation and creativity. Additional characteristics include multilingualism, a strong work ethic, determination and intercultural competence. These attributes assist them in overcoming challenges in new environments and contribute to economic and cultural diversity in host countries.

The literature indicates that immigrants frequently possess the entrepreneurial characteristics necessary to support the survival and growth of their enterprises. These characteristics include education and skills, previous work experience, early exposure to entrepreneurial environments, adaptability, resilience, a strong work ethic and a high tolerance for risk. Education strengthens management and decision-making skills, while formal and informal learning processes support entrepreneurial development. Work experience contributes practical knowledge of markets, customers and business processes, thereby reducing entrepreneurial risks. Adaptability and resilience are particularly important in new cultural and economic environments, while a willingness to take risks is often associated with the process of migration to South Africa itself.

Immigrants’ participation in self-employment is influenced by both push and pull factors. On the one hand, immigrants are often excluded from the formal labour market due to various forms of discrimination, xenophobia, insecurity, language barriers and the limited recognition of qualifications obtained in their countries of origin. On the other hand, they are attracted by economic opportunities within ethnic markets and communities in South Africa, where existing networks, support systems and demand for entrepreneurial businesses have already been established by earlier migrants. Ethnic enclaves play an important role in this regard, as geographical and economic concentration facilitates access to labour, customers and resources. Self-employment is therefore driven by a combination of necessity, economic opportunities and social networks.

In South Africa, immigrant-owned businesses are predominantly micro or small enterprises with fewer than ten employees, and operate mainly within the manufacturing, trade and service sectors. Examples include spaza shops, street vendors, hair salons, small workshops and food- or motor-related services. Although these enterprises make an important contribution to local economic activity and employment creation, they often remain undercapitalised, informal and vulnerable to economic challenges. Limited access to financial resources, unfavourable business locations, language barriers and security concerns – including xenophobic attacks and extortion – frequently constrain opportunities for economic growth and threaten the sustainability of these enterprises.

Stokvels and Rotating Savings and Credit Associations (ROSCAs)

To address these challenges, immigrant entrepreneurs increasingly rely on informal financial and social support systems, particularly Rotating Savings and Credit Associations (ROSCAs), commonly known in South Africa as stokvels. Stokvels are informal self-help financial structures in which members make regular contributions and gain access to pooled funds on a rotational basis. The order in which members receive payouts may vary and is determined through mechanisms such as lotteries, bidding systems or the urgency of members’ needs. These systems operate based on mutual trust, solidarity, cooperation and shared responsibility. In contexts where formal financial services are inaccessible, stokvels provide an accessible and flexible alternative for entrepreneurs who require capital to start businesses, stabilise cash flow, finance daily operations and absorb economic shocks.

In addition to their financial function, stokvels also fulfil an important social role. They serve as platforms for networking, information sharing and community collaboration. Members exchange knowledge regarding market opportunities, safer business locations, potential suppliers, customer behaviour and business practices. These social networks strengthen entrepreneurs’ ability to reduce vulnerability and develop adaptive strategies for sustained business operations. Participation in stokvels further promotes financial discipline, saving behaviour, self-control, risk management and collective learning, thereby enhancing business resilience and sustainability.

Various forms of ROSCAs exist, including structured savings and investment models, stokvels, as well as other more flexible arrangements in which payouts are adjusted according to members’ needs. These flexible models are particularly relevant in economically uncertain environments where entrepreneurs regularly face unpredictable financial pressures. Although ROSCAs provide interest-free credit and accessible financing, they possess limited financial capacity and lack structured mechanisms for large-scale, long-term expansion financing. ROSCAs are therefore not intended to replace formal financial institutions, but rather function as complementary financial and social support systems. The informal and trust-based nature of stokvels is central to their success, and excessive regulation may undermine their functioning and further disadvantage vulnerable participants.

This study investigated how stokvels and other forms of social capital can strengthen the business coping capacity and resilience of African immigrant entrepreneurs in Cape Town. The research specifically focused on the ways in which informal financial and social networks can assist entrepreneurs in developing financial discipline, expanding access to credit, building business reserves and strengthening social support. The study is grounded in social capital theory, which emphasises how trust, networks, norms, cooperation and information sharing facilitate economic collaboration and collective action. Social capital refers to the network of relationships and resources that individuals, groups or family members build and utilise to achieve shared goals and interests. It consists of structural, relational and cognitive dimensions that determine how resources such as knowledge, skills, information and financial support are mobilised and transferred through social networks. Through these relationships, social capital promotes economic development, strengthens cooperation and trust, and supports entrepreneurs’ ability to manage challenges. For small entrepreneurs, social capital is particularly important because it promotes economic efficiency, resilience and adaptability, thereby contributing to the sustainability and growth of their enterprises.

A qualitative phenomenological research design was employed to investigate the lived experiences of African immigrant entrepreneurs. Data was collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with entrepreneurs from various African countries. An essential criterion was that all participants were current or former members of stokvels and operated established small businesses in Cape Town. The data was analysed through thematic analysis, using Atlas.ti software to identify patterns and themes relating to the use of stokvels and social networks.

The findings indicate that participation in ROSCAs and stokvels is primarily motivated by exclusion from formal financial systems and the need for accessible financial support. Participants use stokvels to obtain start-up capital, build business reserves, manage cash flow and maintain greater financial stability. Social networks within stokvels also play a critical role, as members support one another, share information and collaborate to achieve common economic objectives. These relational resources strengthen entrepreneurs’ capacity to manage risks, absorb economic shocks and develop sustainable business practices. The study confirms that financial resources and social capital are closely intertwined in the development of entrepreneurial resilience among African immigrant entrepreneurs. Stokvels therefore function not merely as short-term financial instruments, but as strategic socioeconomic institutions that promote survival, growth and sustainability.

A significant contribution of the study is the development of a practical framework for the more effective utilisation of stokvels to enhance financial inclusion, business performance and entrepreneurial resilience. The study also extends the application of social capital theory to the context of immigrant entrepreneurship and informal finance. It is recommended that policymakers and support institutions explore ways of supporting informal financial systems without undermining their core principles of community cooperation, trust and flexibility.

Conclusion

Although the study is limited to Cape Town, it makes an important contribution to understanding how African immigrant entrepreneurs utilise informal financial and social systems to address economic exclusion, manage sustainable enterprises and develop greater resilience within challenging economic environments. Further research is recommended to test the proposed framework in other South African cities through quantitative or mixed-method approaches.

Key terms

• African immigrants: Individuals born in African countries outside South Africa who migrate to South Africa for economic, social or political reasons.

• Ethnic entrepreneurship: A set of interconnected business activities undertaken by individuals or groups from the same ethnic communities who share a common cultural background.

• ROSCA: Acronym for a Rotating Savings and Credit Association.

• Rotating Savings and Credit Association (ROSCA): A group of individuals who agree to contribute a fixed amount of money to a common fund on a regular basis, after which the total amount is paid to one member at a time on a rotational basis.

• Social capital: The level of relational trust, values and norms of reciprocity and mutual assistance that a group of individuals or communities can utilise to facilitate collective action.

• Stokvel: Informal self-help financial structure in which members make regular contributions and gain access to pooled funds on a rotational basis.

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