Abstract
Janks (2014:1) argues that all texts have a certain social influence: “[T]hey are designed to recruit us into their version of ‘the truth’”. In line with this view of language, Nelson (2003:24) contends that even euphemisms are deliberately employed by language users. For example, the term “downsizing” is used instead of “laying off workers” to soften the reality of retrenchment, thereby discouraging people to rebel or question it. Language, therefore, holds power because any text is positioned by the writer (or speaker) from their perspective, hoping that the reader (or listener) will share this perspective.
However, Janks (1995a) points out that this power/influence of language is not always obvious in texts. This is precisely why learners need explicit teaching in identifying the writer’s (or speaker’s) point of view (or position) to take their own stance in relation to the message being conveyed (cf. Janks 2014; Taylor et al. 2017). The National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) supports this through the inclusion of critical language awareness (CLA) as a curriculum component.
However, the type of teaching guidance provided in the above-mentioned Afrikaans curriculum document is insufficient. For instance, the term CLA is defined in the CAPS document of Afrikaans Home Language for the Senior Phase as the ability to analyse the construction of meaning through an understanding of power relations within and between languages to resist manipulation and use language sensitively (DBE 2011:135). This implies that language is used by the writer (or speaker), the person with power, to position the addressee/reader in a particular way (Clark and Ivanič 1999; Janks 2005a; Janks 2009a; Janks 2009b; Janks 2010a; Petersen 2014), and that an awareness of this enables language users both to resist being influenced by misleading language and to empower themselves to adapt their own language use to communicate effectively. Yet, such an explanation is not provided for the Afrikaans teacher who is expected to teach CLA. In fact, the definition of CLA provided at the beginning of this paragraph is presented as an afterthought in the glossary at the back of the relevant curriculum document. Furthermore, the components of CLA (for example, statements, opinions, stereotypes) are presented as a checklist for teaching and mastering CLA.
Petersen (2014) also highlights further shortcomings in the description of CLA in the CAPS document. Firstly, the relationship between language and power, as reflected in the home language curriculum document, is absent in the additional language curriculum document. Secondly, the multiple interpretations of a text, which is an important feature of CLA, are not emphasised. Thirdly, the use of terminology such as “fact” and “opinion”, “emotive and manipulative language”, and “bias and prejudice” creates the assumption that writing can only be characterised by one of these characteristics. In other words, writing characterised by, for example, impartiality cannot also be biased or discriminatory. This either-or approach reduces a complex issue to a correct-wrong answer approach (Petersen 2014).
These gaps are also observed in the teaching practices of Afrikaans teachers, as evidenced in Petersen’s (2014) study. It was found that lessons with specific learning outcomes and a predetermined interpretation of a chosen text were developed, creating the assumption that texts can only be interpreted in one way (specifically, the way the teacher understands the text). This creates (i) the perception of the classroom as a place where only correct answers are encouraged, (ii) the mistaken belief that CLA teaching is a type of language proficiency that must be demonstrated, and (iii) the misconception that learners are expected to accept the positioning of the text (Janks 1997). In reality, CLA is about recognising that the language choices we make have a particular social, interpersonal, and ideological origin and effect (Weninger and Kan 2012).
What also emerges is a reliance on CAPS guidelines, with teachers directly referring to these during CLA teaching (Petersen 2014). This leads to lessons that are formal in nature, discouraging learners from participating in class discussions and instead encouraging them to provide answers that they think the teacher wants to hear. The problem is that this reliance on CAPS contributes to teachers viewing CLA concepts (for example, statements, opinions, stereotypes) as a checklist, slavishly following it within the context of the current product-driven approach to curriculum design (cf. Van Oort 2018). This approach to critical language awareness teaching is also not conducive to the development of learners’ critical thinking skills.
To address the gap regarding a reliance on CAPS guidelines, a reflective teaching practice should be implemented, in which teachers become self-directed learners and model the process for their learners, thereby promoting the development of learners’ critical thinking skills. To support the development of self-directed teachers (and learners) within the context of CLA teaching, the primary research objective of this article is to provide teachers with strategies to become creators of CLA content themselves. To achieve this, a comprehensive literature review was undertaken to identify strategies for effective CLA teaching.
Various strategies are proposed: (i) Make learners aware of the issue of power and how it can be expressed by people who force or convince others to do something. (ii) Start at a micro level by introducing learners to how linguistic resources are used by writers (or speakers) to position them. (iii) Encourage learners to distance themselves from the text and develop objectivity by expecting them to examine the world represented by the text and its social influences, by asking critical questions. These critical questions may still include reading comprehension, although the focus shifts to positioning, value judgements, and assessments through language use. (iv) Engage learners’ own frameworks by asking them to reflect on how their ideologies and beliefs may influence situations. (v) Connect texts to the social, political, and historical context in which the text is embedded, as these aspects influence what a writer writes. (vi) Move away from assignments that ask learners to identify a sentence as a fact/opinion/stereotype, as this undermines CLA. (vii) Choose a variety of texts – both those with which learners may agree, and those with which they may disagree. (viii) Focus on the deconstruction of texts, as well as the reconstruction of texts. (ix) Include CLA during speaking activities. Use role-playing (e.g. dialogues) to empower learners to reconsider their own viewpoints and understand others’ perspectives. (x) Promote a progressive approach where language differences and diversity are seen as assets, by including texts or media from writers who are multilingual or speak more than one variety of a language. (xi) CLA can also be taught through tasks.
Keywords: Afrikaans classroom; critical language awareness; critical readers; teaching strategies; self-directed learning
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Lees die volledige artikel in Afrikaans
Die bevordering van kritiesetaalbewustheidsonderrig in die Afrikaansklaskamer