Abstract
Afrikaner women, particularly female teachers, sometimes face unique challenges in navigating the complexities of their identity and social structures. These women are often subjected to societal norms and expectations that shape their perception of themselves and their roles within society. These norms can be rooted in race, religion, and nationalism. The emotional well-being of Afrikaner women is significantly influenced by gender norms, as they are often denied employment due to conservative views on their role in society. Despite progress in empowerment since 1994, they still face limitations, including family commitments, that their male counterparts do not face.
Gendered identity is also a significant challenge for Afrikaner women, as they are often perceived as carers rather than disciplinarians in schools. In this study, we aim to explore the influence of religion as a socio-cultural expectation on the construction of the female teaching identity of an Afrikaner woman. Our choice of research paradigm, which includes personal and professional contexts, plays a crucial role in shaping the way we generate novel insights about both individuals and society as a whole. The experiences of Afrikaner women, particularly female teachers, are deeply influenced by societal norms and expectations. Addressing these challenges is essential for advancing the rights and opportunities of women and girls in the 21st century.
The Afrikaner’s story of women is one of perseverance and victory in the face of tragedy, romance and heroism, and then exploitation and oppression in an era of universal freedom, disillusionment, humiliation and guilt. South Africa is still facing many trials related to racial identity, relationships between persons of different races, class struggles and gender inequality. Many of these enquiries are not isolated to Afrikaner women, as most women in South Africa have trouble grappling with their identity for various reasons. This article focuses on the identity construction of Afrikaner women, specifically Afrikaner female teachers.
Apartheid’s dominant identity, “the Afrikaner”, was the result of Afrikaner nationalism and its imagined community (the “volk”). The concept of “The Afrikaner” was forged in the first half of the 20th century from within a mixed community of white British colonialists and indigenous black people. The most common perception about white, Afrikaans-speaking identity is that it seems to be dominated by ideas of race, nationalism and religion. This article focuses on the ideas of religion within the Afrikaner culture, as it contributes to the understanding of the experiences of the female Afrikaner teacher.
Since the beginning of the 21st century, women have been assigned the societal position of housewife, confining them to responsibilities linked to household affairs, nurturing, upbringing of children and subservience. Afrikaner churches had a significant influence in shaping women’s perception of their pivotal position as the foundation of their households. Women were bestowed with idealised designations such as “die boervrou” (the boer woman), “moeder van haar volk” (mother of her nation) and “volksmoeder” (the nation’s mother). This societal role played by women significantly diverted their attention from the prevailing male dominance in their existence.
Feminine Afrikaner identity has its roots in the early 20th century, with women’s associations like the Women’s Monument Committee forming to remember the victims of concentration camps during the Second Boer War. The ideal Afrikaner lady was dutiful, Christian, hardworking, altruistic and subservient while restricting her own sexuality to maintain the “volksmoeder” ideology. The formation of feminine Afrikaner identity was also influenced by Christianity, which emphasised traditional gender roles and family values.
In South Africa, female teachers face unique challenges that influence their professional identities. The country’s history of apartheid and gender-based violence has shaped cultural norms and expectations that impact their experiences in and out of the classroom. Female teachers often face a double burden of expectations, as they are expected to be caregivers in their personal lives, as well as in their roles as teachers. This can create challenges in balancing their personal and professional responsibilities. Salary plays a significant role in a female teacher’s life, impacting their female teacher identity and choices during their teaching career. The perceived pressure on an Afrikaner female teacher is to marry a rich man rather than focus on being promoted in the school to positions that earn a higher salary. This socio-cultural expectation forces them to devote more energy to family life, negatively impacting their later career development.
During the apartheid era in South Africa, education departments were divided along racial lines, leading to diverse forms of power over instructors. Teacher wages varied based on gender and race, with black female teachers receiving the least favourable compensation. Despite reforms in teacher salary scales, female teachers in South Africa still face poor pay, with Post Level 1 teachers being the lowest earners.
Feminism metatheory is used to examine the disparities between women’s experiences and social positioning in comparison to males. The interpretive epistemological paradigm is employed to explore the lived experiences of the female Afrikaner teacher and the influence of perceived socio-cultural expectations on her identity construction.
Autoethnography is a qualitative research design that integrates the methodologies of autobiography and ethnography. The researchers used autoethnographic narratives, which were composed of chronologically organised narrative vignettes followed by critical reflections. Data was collected from the narrative vignettes, which were analysed using thematic data analysis. As a qualitative research design, autoethnography combines personal experiences, self-reflection and cultural inquiry to explore and understand social phenomena. In this research study, I (the writing researcher) aim to investigate how my Afrikaner religion influenced the construction of my female teacher identity. The concept of religion encompasses a structured framework of concepts, cultural rituals and philosophical perspectives that pertain to human beings and their understanding of the natural order. Traumatic experiences can lead to reconsideration of adherence to certain roles, objectives, values and beliefs. I reflect on the influence of socio-cultural expectations and how they formed my identity. Addressing systemic issues of gender-based discrimination, and providing resources and support for balancing personal and professional responsibilities is crucial for supporting female teachers in South Africa.
Communal necessities, education and self-categorisation shape Afrikaner identity. Culture is a collective of people, including patterns of conduct, beliefs, values, attitudes, arts, sciences, modes of perception and cognitive processes. Autoethnography helps individuals understand their own culture by including themselves. Growing up in ‘new South Africa’, Afrikaner women often grapple with their identities due to the expectations placed on them. Religion also significantly impacts their identity, with many Afrikaners upholding male social dominance within social hierarchies. This has led to unequal treatment of women in domestic, societal and professional contexts.
In Afrikaner culture, identity and belonging are anchored in interpersonal connections made at work, school and in one’s neighbourhood. Religiously inclined people form complex alliances with their preferred worldview, and their preferred worldview is where women are seen as equal partners in relationships.
Autoethnography research studies aim to comprehend social phenomena using introspective reflection on individual experiences, revealing societal frameworks and power dynamics. This process of introspection and reflection helps researchers understand and formulate hypotheses about the interrelationships between the self, different power dynamics and cultural influences, contributing to the current body of scholarly knowledge.
There is a shortage of research on young, white Afrikaans-speaking women, but this study arose from a woman’s identity struggle and an endeavour to actualise concealed pieces of herself. Sexism, androcentrism and patriarchy have had a significant influence on the lives of white Afrikaner women living in South Africa. They have internalised their oppression and bought into oppressive structures, thinking that patriarchal concepts of female subjugation and male headship are beneficial to them and society.
Keywords: Afrikaner identity; female teacher identity; socio-cultural expectations