Abstract
This article is the second of three which reports on research that was undertaken by the first author for a doctorate study. The first article sets out the research methodology for this study. In the third article we focus on the model on which the gamified pronunciation application can be developed. In this article we provide the theoretical foundation for the design of a gamified application model for pronunciation aimed at foreign language speakers of Afrikaans.
Pronunciation which is not listener-friendly can cause confusion in conversations and embarrass the speaker. This can lead to the speaker’s having low motivation to speak the target language or not wanting to be engaged in learning the language. The current presentation of the task-based language learning and teaching approach in foreign language classes does not allow for sufficient attention to pronunciation. The primary focus of task-based language learning and teaching is meaning. The use of gamification has the potential to play a big role in the motivation and continuous engagement of students – these aspects of language learning are very important. But the use of gamification alone cannot achieve this. The students and/or lecturers must look at relevant affordances and implement them. It is the lecturer’s/researcher’s/designer’s responsibility to create a resource which meets the needs of students and interests them on all levels. An affordance that meets these requirements is a gamified pronunciation application.
The acquisition of a language’s pronunciation can be a daunting task which requires motivation, time and patience from the lecturer and student (Pennington and Rogerson-Revell 2019:201). It is therefore of great importance that the teaching and learning process of pronunciation is effective and thoroughly based on foreign language theory.
To ensure that the application is one that can address students’ needs and is based firmly on relevant foreign language theory we used the following theoretical foundation for the design of the application which is supported by mobile-assisted language learning, with specific reference to the principles for the development and implementation of mobile-assisted teaching by Stockwell and Hubbard (2013); guidelines for a user-friendly user interface by Clearbridge Mobile (2020) and user experience by Babich (2018); the gamification model by Huang and Soman (2013); the guidelines for pronunciation teaching (Smith and Conti 2016 and Conti 2016) and the guidelines for ethical gamification as proposed by Rootman-Le Grange, Barnard and Adams (2016).
In the literature study on pronunciation we discovered that various factors could cause pronunciation to not be listener-friendly. This includes the articulatory setting of speakers, and affective factors like a lack of motivation or self-confidence, and fear. Under articulatory setting it was found that foreign language speakers’ first language can influence their pronunciation and observation of sounds in the segmental and suprasegmental features of their target language. According to Gibson and Bernales (2020:82) it influences students’ ability to produce and hear sounds. They claim that speakers’ pronunciation that is not listener-friendly reflects the influence of sounds, rules, stress, and intonation of their first language. Regarding the affective factors, Krashen (1982:30–2) postulates that input can be blocked by a high affective filter and that input can be better absorbed when a student’s affective filter is low. It is thus important always to consider the affective factors that can influence students.
It was determined that if these factors are addressed then the acquisition of listener-friendly pronunciation can be facilitated by relevant and sufficient input, the opportunity to speak (output) and direct instruction. Such interventions to remedy pronunciation which is not listener-friendly has not been implemented because pronunciation does not receive the same attention as other aspects of language acquisition. This is partly due to lecturers’ not having enough time or the skills to teach pronunciation, and due to the shortage of resources and learning material. To facilitate appropriate ways of pronunciation learning, we consulted Conti’s (Smith and Conti 2016:27 and Conti 2016) five-step approach to teaching pronunciation. This approach focuses on facilitating listener-friendly pronunciation by using input and production tasks.
In addition to Conti’s approach we suggest direct instruction regarding sounds, even though it does not form part of task-based learning and teaching. We therefore use the task-supported approach in the design of the application. In this way students receive guidance for listener-friendly pronunciation, but they could also get practice by playing the games. The direct instruction of sounds is important because it focuses on the segmental features of speakers’ pronunciation that they do not necessarily notice or learn unless it is taught directly.
We nonetheless reviewed task-based language learning and teaching literature because it provides insight into how students are currently learning and being taught; what this widely applied approach entails; and how tasks can facilitate the learning process. Tasks form an integral part of task-based and task-supported learning and teaching approaches, and input- and output-based tasks are especially significant for the goals of this study. Input-based tasks were used because they expose the students to the target language without forcing them to speak it. Output-based tasks, on the other hand, afford them the opportunity to practise the target language. These tasks are all based on the needs of the students.
With teaching and learning becoming more student-centred, it came to light that students’ ideas of what their needs are must be considered when the syllabus is designed. The pronunciation application in general – including the content which includes the tasks/games, must relate to the needs of the users. The idea that a needs analysis must form an integral part of course design is widely supported in education, because this can shed light on, among other things, the goals of the course, the selection of content, and the students’ goals. A vital point that arose from the discussion of needs analyses is that needs can be viewed from different perspectives – those of students and those of lecturers. Their perceptions of what their needs are must, however, be used in conjunction with the evaluation of a lecturer or needs analyst.
Gamification within mobile-assisted learning is one way of furthering the idea of student-centred teaching. Gamification has long been successfully used in various fields, such as marketing, finance, and the health sector. Its popularity is still increasing in the education sector, including in language learning and teaching. The use of gamification as an educational tool increases students’ engagement and motivation, and it creates a relaxed environment in which to study – this is the case only if it is applied correctly. Huang and Soman’s (2013:7–14) highly cited gamification model consist of five steps. This model is student-centred, it considers affective and cognitive factors, prioritises the setting of goals and the breaking up of tasks into digestible parts.
We use gamification in a mobile application. Computer-assisted learning and a sub-section, mobile-assisted language learning, have been used for decades. They have been utilised to improve reading and listening skills and vocabulary. Mobile learning is of great importance in language acquisition because most students own cell phones. Furthermore, mobile-assisted language learning has become commonly used. There has been a big shift in the direction of online learning and mobile learning. This became even more obvious during the Covid pandemic. It also provides students with affordances to accept responsibility for their education outside of the classroom, and thus to improve their autonomy. Students are willing to use mobile-assisted learning and teaching inside and outside of the classroom.
Stockwell and Hubbard (2013:8–9) set out principles for developing and implementing mobile-assisted teaching. These principles focus, among other things, on the affordances and the limitations of mobile devices and environment in which the learning takes place, the execution of more than one task at a time and the length of tasks. To complement this, we refer to the guidelines for ethical gamification by Rootman-Le Grange, Barnard and Adams (2016:1).
In the field of mobile learning, applications are used. In this section we discuss the components of a successful application with reference to the user interface and the user experience. Clearbridge Mobile (2020) lists the following features as key components in a successful application under “user interface”: clarity, familiarity, responsiveness, consistency and aesthetics. For a user-friendly application, Babich (2018) recommends that the following be considered: low cognitive load, decluttering, limiting input and actions, breaking tasks up into smaller parts, using familiar screens, predicting needs, aesthetics, avoiding jargon, empowering the user, using meaningful error messages, simplifying navigation, not asking for set-up or sign-up information immediately, optimising content for mobile devices, keeping the design consistent, and making provision for interruptions and bad internet connections.
A user-friendly interface and user experience once again highlights the importance of the user, which is in line with the use of needs analyses, task-based learning and task-supported learning. The learning experience, application experience and the interface must therefore be designed for the benefit and convenience of the user – and that is a vital part of our study.
The reason for this is that even though there is an abundance of mobile applications for language learning in Afrikaans, there aren’t any which address and focus on the pronunciation needs of foreign language speakers of Afrikaans. Additionally, there are only a few lessons per week. These are not enough for students to develop listener-friendly pronunciation. They need continuous practice and guidance, and as mentioned before, direct instruction regarding sounds they struggle with.
Keywords: affective filter; affordances; Afrikaans language acquisition; Afrikaans pronunciation; articulatory setting; educational technology; ethical gamification; gamification; mobile applications; mobile technology; mobile-assisted language learning; needs; user experience; user interface; user-centred; user-friendly