Abstract
Since a translator cannot solely rely on interlingual translation (translation between two verbal languages) for the translation of multimodal texts such as comics, the translation process poses its challenges. In addition to the inevitable interlingual translation challenges that come with translating any text type or genre, the process of comics translation is complicated on various other levels. These not only include intercultural or pragmatic challenges, because comics are cultural products that are incorporated into a specific cultural, economic, and political environment (Celotti 2008:35), but also multimodal challenges due to both the handling of purely nonverbal elements in the translation process and the interplay between the verbal and nonverbal elements in the comic that are in a complementary relationship to each other. These multifaceted challenges then require careful attention from the comics translator if a well-rounded and well-functioning translation product is to be established. Kaindl (2010:37) writes that if the scope of comics translation as a field of research is broadened, it will pave the way for a more comprehensive understanding of these problems (i.e., challenges) of comics translation – this is where I hope to contribute by providing a description of the nature of comics translation.
This article presents a description of the main translation challenges a translator can face when translating a multimodal text such as a comic, and how these challenges or problems can be solved. Therefore, the two questions asked in this article are: In particular, what multimodal translation challenges can a translator expect when translating a comic? How can these challenges be solved? In order to provide a detailed description of these research questions, a case study research design is followed. Watterson’s Calvin and Hobbes: Sunday pages 1985–1995: An exhibition catalogue (2001) serves as case study in this article. This issue contains the most popular Sunday strips of Calvin and Hobbes that appeared in more than 2 400 newspapers’ Sunday edition worldwide between 1985 and 1995. Not only does it feature 36 comics in black-and-white as well as colour chosen by Watterson himself, but also his commentary thereon. As the production of the Sunday strips became visually more complex, he later made use of colour to achieve a certain effect or evoke emotion in the reader (Watterson 2001:7). Watterson (2001:5) further explains that he had higher standards for the Sunday strips, that it had to do something special, and that these strips highlighted the strengths of Calvin and Hobbes. He also mentions that he was able to experiment with the Sunday strips, because they could take up more space in the Sunday newspaper (Watterson 2001:5). Watterson (2001:8) argues that the larger Sunday strips led to a better product and provided more enjoyment to readers. The following is written by Watterson (2001:6) in the book’s preface: “[T]he Sunday page offered unique opportunities, and I deliberately tried to come up with ideas that could take advantage of them.”
The theoretical discussion in this article is based on Christiane Nord’s (1997a) categories of translation problems and Anthony Pym’s (2018) typology of translation solutions. Nord (1997a) distinguishes between four types of translation problems: intercultural, pragmatic, interlingual, and text-specific translation problems. The latter is of the utmost importance and relevance, as the purpose of this article is to provide a description of the main multimodal translation challenges of a multimodal text, namely a comic, which fall under the category of text-specific challenges. Nord (1997a:67) calls problems that cannot be generalised and that apply specifically to the text type at hand, text-specific problems. When dealing with this type of challenge, translators must be prepared to act creatively (Nord 1997a:67). According to Nord (1997a:67) this category can include challenges such as metaphors, similes, neologisms, etc. In relation to the investigation of multimodality – an issue specific to comics as a multimodal text type – this category is of particular interest.
Due to comics’ apparent multimodal nature and the nonverbal elements’ part in meaning-making in comics, it is essential to discuss in greater detail the issue of multimodality as a text-specific translation challenge. According to Zanfei (2008:60) multimodality is “the co-deployment and interplay of language and image”. Tuominen, Jiménez Hurtado and Ketola (2018:4) state that multimodal translation broadens the definition and scope of translation in that it takes place between both verbal and nonverbal modes. Because a translator must therefore also consider the visual elements during a multimodal translation process – such as comics translation – this presents new challenges for the translator: nonverbal information must be adapted, and the translator must ensure that the verbal content is still related to the visual mode (Tuominen e.a. 2018:4). By investigating multimodal texts through a more comprehensive lens or framework (such as that of Nord), what is challenging and unique about multimodal translation can really be put into focus.
As translation problems and solutions are mutually determined and usually act in pairs, each problem has a solution. This article uses Anthony Pym’s table of translation solutions to categorise, describe, and theoretically ground the way a translator can solve translation problems or challenges. Pym’s (2018) typology of translation solution types for many languages offers a general, comprehensive, but also open typology that assists translators in situations where they must make difficult decisions between two (or more) language pairs and where these choices are not limited to verbal data (Racz 2017:76). Therefore, the following three main strategies of translation solutions that Pym (2018:45) identifies are also suitable for multimodal texts, such as comics, which do not consist solely of verbal elements or pose solely verbal translation challenges: copying, expression change and material change. Pym (2018:44) uses the metaphor cruise mode when the translation process takes place without any problems or challenges and, in contrast, bump mode that occurs when the translator encounters an obstacle in the translation process. He (2018:44) then suggests ways in which these bumps – i.e., problems or challenges – can be ironed out, such as: copying words, copying structure, perspective change, density change, resegmentation, compensation, cultural correspondence, and text tailoring. These solutions range from simple to complex, least to most strenuous, and move from close-to-the-text solutions to more far-reaching solutions.
The methodology involves, firstly, providing some theoretical background regarding the history of comics and comics translation. This contextualises the reading process as well as translation process of comics which both surpass the conventional reading or translation processes of solely verbal text that does not require nonverbal deciphering. Then the abovementioned theoretical frameworks and their key concepts are introduced to be utilised in the discussion of the research questions. In particular, the factor of multimodality as a text-specific translation problem is brought into focus by describing the need for a multimodal translation perspective when translating a multimodal text, such as a comic. The next section of the investigation provides a description of the main multimodal translation problems that can be expected whilst translating a comic, such as Calvin and Hobbes, and how these challenges can be solved by using Pym’s translation solutions. For this discussion, examples are drawn from Calvin and Hobbes: Sunday pages 1985–1995: An exhibition catalogue (2001), serving as case study in this article. The following main multimodal translation challenges are presented: visual adaptation (under which challenges regarding the use of colour, graphics, illustrations, and other nonverbal elements are discussed), the concept used in Translation Studies, namely constrained translation, and typography.
The main finding suggests that multimodal translation problems are the overarching and predominant translation challenge when it comes to the translation of comics, under which a comic’s text-specific multimodal translation challenges reside. In the case of Calvin and Hobbes the main multimodal translation challenges came about when dealing with visual adaptation, constrained space, the use of colour, and typography. These challenges can typically be categorised as text-specific translation problems. However, as Nord’s four categories often overlap and comics are predominantly multimodal texts, multimodal challenges will often also be paired with intercultural, pragmatic or interlingual translation problems, each falling under its relevant category. Likewise, various translation solutions can also work together to solve such intricate, complex, and multifaceted problems that manifest both verbally and nonverbally. In summary, even though the translation of multimodal text is not typical, straightforward, or simple by any means, it does not mean that the avoidance thereof can be justified. By theorising about the challenges and solutions of comics translation, the comics translator will see that multimodal translation problems (in particular) can be overcome and that “semiotics can help translation research break free from its verbal shackles – oral or written” (Stecconi 2010:316).
Keywords: Anthony Pym; Calvin and Hobbes; Christiane Nord; comics; comics translation; multimodality; text-specific translation problems; translation solutions; translation challenges
Lees die volledige artikel in Afrikaans
Multimodaliteit as vertaaluitdaging van strokiesprentvertaling: Calvin and Hobbes as gevallestudie