Abstract
How are standards and criteria for the assessment of the competence of student teachers as assessors described in scholarly literature? The quality of initial teacher education, including the credible assessment of student teachers as assessors is largely determined, amongst others, by clearly formulated standards and related assessment criteria. Professional standards can be used to address entry requirement challenges like recruitment and selection, and initial training and development (pre-service) requirements such as induction and mentoring, and continued professional development (CPD) requirements. A framework of such standards, designed as a development instrument that captures the knowledge development and performance expectations and that which student teachers learn, are maximised when carefully applied (Gallie and Keevy 2014; Du Plessis and Dreyer 2024). There is a need to revisit and reformulate standards and criteria for the assessment of the competence of student teachers as assessors as it would contribute to more effective training and assessment of student teachers, and consequently more effective teaching, learning and assessment in the classrooms of beginner teachers.
This article, by nature an in-depth literature study, searches for deeper understanding of the phenomenon assessing the competence of student teachers as assessors using appropriate standards and criteria. The researchers sought to clarify the essential meaning of standards and criteria, assessment in education, and competence as an assessor. The study describes the perspectives related to the context in which student teachers are assessed and includes theoretical frameworks related to the three constructs mentioned.
The researchers applied in-depth integrative literature studies to construct a context description and three theoretical frameworks. The context description and theoretical frameworks are presented in summary descriptions rather than as new theories. Such summary descriptions are regarded as sufficient for grounding further research en route to revising and reformulating standards and criteria for assessing student teachers as assessors.
A three-step process was followed. First, relevant articles were identified by means of accessing search engines such as Google Scholar, online publications and EBSCOhost. Both theoretical and empirical literature was selected by studying abstracts and applying preliminary search-reading. Secondly, the contribution of every article or publication relevant to the concept under scrutiny was critically considered and recorded. As the study developed, a variety of views and notions were identified and grouped to generate a mosaic of ideas regarding the context and three broad notions focused on. Thirdly, the literature study was compiled in descriptive narratives and illustrated by means of diagrammatic representations.
Findings
1. The context within which student teachers are assessed impact on the standards and criteria used for training and assessment purposes
The assessment of student teachers as assessors exists in a historical-cultural context that is characterised by influences such as an increasing drive to recognise Africanisation, the legacies of colonial and apartheid education, as well as pertinent challenges, courageous efforts and initiatives, and bitter disappointments emerging from creating an effective, unitary, non-discriminatory education system during the democratic era since 1994. The current South African teacher education system provides for training of student teachers within Initial Teacher Education (ITE) involving universities, departments of education, professional institutions such as the South African Council for Educators (SACE) and the unions. The most significant context in this regard exist in the use of Work Integrated Learning (WIL) or teaching practice as mechanism to develop and assess student teachers’ competence, including their competence as assessors. High demands are placed in this context as its efficiency is dependent on properly functioning schools and dedicated mentoring by receiving teachers, both aspects with varied levels of adequacy. Within the teaching practice triad several challenges impact on effective assessment of student teachers, particularly regarding assessing the ability to conduct, amongst others, summative assessments prior to entry into the profession.
2. Standards describe levels of competence whereas related assessment criteria describe standards in terms of distinguishing characteristics by which standards may be assessed
The research showed that, although the two terms are often used interchangeably, in assessment context there are significant differences despite overlap in meaning of standards and criteria (Sadler 2005). Standards, as definite levels of excellence or attainment at which competence must be demonstrated to indicate that an assessment performance meets the threshold or minimum requirements for competence. These minimum requirements are set in the relevant teacher education qualifications. Assessment criteria related to any such standard are used to describe a standard by means of distinguishing properties or characteristics, and are collectively understood as detailed descriptions of all requirements to be met in order to show that the level set in the standard has been met.
3. Assessment in education is intertwined with teaching and learning and is both uncomplicated and complex in nature
The literature revealed assessment in educational context, also understood as testing, as format, as purpose and as process, to be inextricably intertwined with learning and teaching, ranging from natural, unstructured, spontaneous, incidental and informal contexts to structured planned or formal contexts as a continuous continuum of purposes, and which is practised as assessment as learning, assessment for learning and assessment of learning. It uses an essentially dual process of gathering evidence and of judging evidence of competence, usually described by means of assessment criteria, for a variety of purposes including the award of qualifications and making other decisions about learners, learning and teaching. It is most effectively done by teachers, and by learners as partners, making credible judgements and sound decisions on learners’ work, performances and achievements, as well as on future teaching, learning and assessment. Assessment judgements and decisions are communicated to learners as feedback and to other internal and external stakeholders as feed-out, using a variety of media.
4. Competence as fundamental notion is in essence applied competence of foundational, practical and reflexive abilities
The researchers found that the essence of competence lies in the applied nature of ability. Competence can only be observed directly where it is being applied. It is the integrated ability of facing up to and acting upon the challenges faced including change and uncertainty – in essence, problem-solving ability. It incorporates various abilities or competencies such as fundamental competencies (knowledge and understanding), practical competencies (psychomotor skills) and reflexive competencies (values and attitudes) in a particular domain or field of interest. It is also understood as one of several phases in professional growth and includes meta-competence or the ability to deal with change.
5. The competence of the teacher as assessor is applied competence of several intertwined abilities
Literature describes competence as an assessor as applied competence, demonstrating several intertwined abilities. These include to choose procedures; implement assessment activities to monitor performances; assess evidence of learner competence; analyse mistakes; lead and direct own and learners’ decision-making; listen to learners; and provide feedback and feed-out. These and other assessment-related abilities are embedded in sound subject knowledge and deep understanding of learning, teaching and assessment theory. It includes practical abilities such as planning, preparation and organisation of assessment activities; practical assessment and providing verbal feedback to learners. Assessment competence includes reflexive ability demonstrated in considering theoretical, curriculum requirements and contextual influences. Competent assessors in education act professionally and ethically in any circumstance, make substantiated judgements and decisions and contemplate the improvement of teaching, assessment and education continually. Competence as an assessor is demonstrated at various levels of competence such as at student teacher, beginner teacher and experienced teacher levels.
The study was limited in two ways. First, it was limited to studying literature only and did not focus on the actual revision and reformulation of standards and criteria for assessing the competence of student teachers as assessors, per se. It only reflected views about such standards and related notions as presented in scholarly literature. Second, as far as context is concerned, there was an emphasis on the teaching practice context and almost no reference was made to the assessment of the theoretical component studied by student teachers during ITE. It focused on factors within teaching practice contexts, mostly. The purpose was to provide contextual and theoretical frameworks using scholarly literature to ground further research related to clearer description of standards and criteria.
Recommendation
The researchers recommend that the context description and theoretical frameworks described in the findings are used as grounding for further research to hear the voices of authors of documents containing existing standards and criteria of assessor competence, as well as the voices of information-rich practitioners of the assessment of student teachers as assessors. Qualitative Document Analysis (QDA) and Hermeneutical Phenomenological Interviews (HPI) are proposed in this regard to inform the actual revision and reformulation of standards and criteria for assessing the competence of student teachers as assessors.
Keywords: Initial Teacher Education (ITE); assessment in education; competence as assessor; Continuum of Teacher Education (COTE); literature study as methodology; educational standards; education students; practical education; standards and criteria
- This article’s featured image was created by Nathan Dumlao and obtained from Unsplash.