Abstract
States’ roles in international politics are characterised by the instruments they use to exert influence. Foreign policy and diplomacy are often mentioned in the same breath, but there is a clear difference. The foreign policy of a state encompasses the overarching goals of a state and the plans and actions to achieve the goals. This happens through interactions with other states. The main instrument for implementing foreign policy is diplomacy, but there are also other instruments, for example foreign aid and military intervention or force.
The main point of departure in the article is that Russia uses a different framework of influence to determine relations with African countries. Due to economic and financial constraints, Russia is unable to compete on equal footing with America and China. The question is what forms of diplomacy or influence Russia uses to win the favour of African countries. The first part of this article examines the political, economic and military dimensions of influence that also form the basis of Russia’s foreign policy in Africa.
Furthermore, there are five objectives that underlie the dimensions, namely to use Africa as a means of expanding international power; to obtain raw materials and natural resources; to provide weapons and security services to African governments; to help with the provision of energy and capacity (building nuclear power plants); and to use Russian companies for building infrastructure.
The second part of the article sheds light on the practical value the dimensions hold with the dimensions of influence. Reference is made here to examples and to projects completed over the past number of years. The third part of the article provides a critical evaluation of Russia’s foreign policy in Africa. The last part of the article looks at African countries’ perspectives on the presence of Russia on the continent.
One of Russia’s most important tools for exercising strategic influence in regions of the world is diplomacy. Diplomacy is particularly significant in the mediation of international conflicts, which in turn increases the pursuit of strategic goals. Diplomacy is important to raise Russia’s international status, especially in the area of security. Over the past number of years Russia has acted as a mediator in the conflict in the Central African Republic (CAR). This is viewed by other countries as a step towards peace and stability.
Russia’s diplomacy is formulated to directly benefit the country’s foreign policy goals. In Africa it is a low-cost and efficient mechanism to expand geopolitical influence, for example in Libya, Mali and the CAR. In all three countries, strategic partnerships have been signed with the governments or military juntas. The reason is to deploy soldiers in conflict areas and increase the country’s military presence.
Russia supports African countries in their efforts to find solutions to political, economic and security challenges. This helps African countries to determine their own future and become part of the global architecture. Social and economic progress is a prerequisite for peace and stability.
BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) is a major economic platform to promote cooperation between Russia and African countries. South Africa is viewed as the launching pad to Africa and an instrument for facilitating the grouping’s economic and business deals on the continent. In 2013 Russia and South Africa signed a comprehensive strategic partnership. In 2018 Russia signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Southern African Development Community (SADC). This aims to promote trade between Russia and countries in the region and exchange technology.
Russia uses various economic sectors to exert influence in Africa. These include commodities such as agriculture, energy, technology, transport, and digitalisation. There are also many similarities between Russia and African countries’ economic policies and strategies for development. One of the most important similarities is that natural resources are a primary source of income for both Russia and Africa.
Building infrastructure in the form of nuclear power plants is another area of Russia’s economic activities. Rosatom, the state-owned energy supply corporation, began construction of Egypt’s first nuclear power plant in 2020. Rosatom has also signed contracts with 17 other African governments to build nuclear power plants. These include Ethiopia, Nigeria, Rwanda and Zambia.
Military diplomacy is the main area of Russia’s involvement in Africa. The cooperation includes the sale of weapons and the provision of security services. Russia is a major exporter of arms and ammunition to African countries. Arms sales for the period 2012 to 2021 increased by 28%. Between 2015 and 2018 more than 20 military cooperation agreements were signed with African governments.
Russia’s participation in peacekeeping missions is another area of military diplomacy. The training of African Union (AU) peacekeeping troops is necessary to bring peace and stability to the continent. The focus is to resolve conflicts in the CAR, Mali and South Sudan. Large sums of money have already been donated to the AU’s Peace Fund to train troops and purchase equipment.
Several private military companies (PMCs) have moved operations to Africa in the past few years. Groups from America, England, France and Russia are all active on the continent. The Wagner group from Russia stands out as the most prominent. Wagner is present in Libya, Madagascar, Mali, Mozambique, CAR and Sudan and performs a variety of tasks. These include training security personnel, protecting senior government officials (the president and elite), protecting energy infrastructure, mines and government departments. The presence of PMCs also aims to promote the economic interests of private companies which are partners of the Russian oligarchs.
In what way do African countries contribute to Russia’s position of power in the United Nations (UN)? The African group in the UN consists of 54 countries (28% of all UN member states) and is the largest regional grouping of all the member states. The group lends tremendous impetus to Russia’s activities in the UN and gives rise to the formation of partnerships. These partnerships are important to challenge Western imperialism and the Euro-Atlantic international security order.
During the 2019 Sochi summit more than 30 business contracts were signed between Russia and African countries. The contracts range from economic cooperation agreements to military arms sales. By the end of 2022 trade between Russia and Africa had grown to USA$20 billion.
Another aspect of Russia’s foreign policy is to sign partnerships with African countries that have been neglected by the West. Russia has no problem providing assistance to African countries that are guilty of human rights abuses, for example Mali and Sudan.
Criticism from the West is that Russia uses non-conventional methods to exert influence in Africa. These include the deployment of mercenaries, disinformation campaigns, the exchange of weapons for minerals and the smuggling of precious stones. These low-cost, high-impact instruments of influence are used effectively to support autocratic leaders in Africa who are losing power and want to restore lost prestige. Russia’s support for leaders in the CAR, Mali and Sudan are apt examples.
African countries accuse the West of failed policies on the continent. This leads to support for Russia. This refers not only to the West’s colonial past, the so-called plundering of natural resources and slavery, but also to the Western international order.
The West’s failure to apply the principles of democracy in practice is a further reason for supporting Russia. For example, there is little equality, fairness and mutual benefit in international organisations controlled by the West, while Russia and China promote a multipolar world supported by African countries.
The research question asked what forms of diplomacy or influence Russia uses to win the favour of African countries. There are mixed answers to the question. The political dimension shows that Russia does maintain good relations with countries that have traditionally been Russian allies. The economic dimension has major limitations, especially the absence of sufficient financial resources that can contribute to economic development. Russia is in a strong position in terms of military cooperation. In the CAR, Libya and Mali, Russia provides military aid to maintain security and stability and to protect the authoritarian leaders and elites.
How can relations between Russia and Africa improve? This depends on the signing of more bilateral agreements with governments, regional organisations and business sectors. These initiatives should provide for stronger trade ties, investments, the transfer of technology and educational exchange programmes. The key elements for facilitating the process are transparency and equality between all actors and not Russia’s co-opting of leaders to gain strategic influence.
Keywords: Africa’s perspectives on Russia; foreign policy in Africa; historical background; Russia-Africa military diplomacy; Russia-Africa strategic partnerships
Lees die volledige artikel in Afrikaans:
Dimensies en doelwitte van Rusland se nuwe betrokkenheid in Afrika