Abstract
There has been a renewed international focus on women’s rights and feminism. As influential hashtag-campaigns such as the #metoo-movement illustrates, this development has been bolstered by the growing and far-reaching influence of social media. Social media provides a space where the personal can become political: The individualised, personal narrative of the woman can be shared as a political statement undermining the official narratives (often formulated by powerful men) with regard to highly contested issues such as gender violence. It therefore functions as a mouthpiece for all women, irrespective of their race, class, ethnic or geographic origin and sexual orientation. This focus on the embodied voices and rights of various groups of previously marginalised women is typical of the so-called third feminist wave. Within this movement paradigms like postcolonial or multicultural feminism expand on the ideas of black feminism as established during the second feminist wave to include women from different cultures who (often) come from developing countries. Young women and youth culture (social media and so-called digital or hashtag feminism are here relevant) as well as queer feminism where a binary understanding of gender is rejected, are also points of interest. Diversity is therefore celebrated and issues such as gender violence, societal identity norms for women, the silencing of vulnerable minorities and capitalist patriarchal constructs are taken to task.
In Afrikaans literature, and specifically Afrikaans poetry, there has historically been a stark deficit in black female voices. Coinciding with these global feminist developments a number of black Afrikaans female poets have debuted since 2008 at mainstream publishing houses. The debuts of three of these poets – Ronelda S. Kamfer’s groundbreaking Noudat slapende honde (2008), Shirmoney Rhode’s Nomme 20 Delphistraat (2016) and Jolyn Phillips’ Radbraak (2017) – will be discussed with the focus on the issue of postcolonial feminism and the relevance of themes such as gender, race, class, literary tradition, language and identity.
It is the argument of this article that the texts of these poets are influenced by third wave and postcolonial feminist ideals and establish a new feminist tradition in Afrikaans literature. Although there are numerous women writers in Afrikaans, few have written distinctly feminist texts with Antjie Krog as one of the exceptions. Not only does Kamfer, Rhode and Phillips therefore represent the first group of black Afrikaans women poets published by more prominent publishing houses (Diana Ferrus is a well-known predecessor, however she is self-published), but they also introduce Afrikaans poetry with a strong feminist inclination.
In the article a short overview is provided of the different feminist waves. Feminism in Afrikaans literature is also discussed. The role of digital feminism within the third wave is referenced in an attempt to illustrate how this movement impacted the thinking of women in the last few years. The initial marginalisation of black women by white feminists during the first feminist wave is detailed. This tendency continued in the following feminist waves and still continues within certain feminist discourses today – also, notably, in Afrikaans. Subsequently, the development of black feminism, which flourished during the second wave and the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, into what could be termed postcolonial feminism today, is investigated. The theories of black feminists such as bell hooks and concepts such as intersectionality are thus discussed. The lack of a feminist inclination in Afrikaans literature (especially poetry) as well as the absence of black women until very recently is also explored and possible reasons for this gap provided. Racial or ethnic terminology comes to the forefront, since the question could be raised whether the term black woman writer is relevant given that the three poets whose work are mentioned do not necessarily utilize this racial label. Additionally the tradition of “swart Afrikaanse skryfwerk” (black Afrikaans writing) is referenced as well as the relevance of this concept with regard to postcolonial feminism.
Consequently, relevant poems in the debuts of Kamfer, Rhode and Phillips is examined. It is illustrated how ideas typical to postcolonial feminist thinking is found back in their work as indication of the influence of a new feminist consciousness – a consciousness which could be termed as typical of the third feminist wave. These poets write about similar themes such as sexual violence, marginalisation, female stereotypes, the dismantling of patriarchy and especially toxic patriarchal masculinity as well as the appropriation of language as a form of self-actualization. It is, however, evident that these poets have highly individualized voices. Although similar themes are found in their poetry it is explored or approached differently and, as interviews and thinking pieces of the poets illustrate, seen from contrasting perspectives. Although there might be signs of the establishment of a new feminist tradition in Afrikaans with poets like Antjie Krog and Diana Ferrus as well as an affiliation to the University of the Western Cape as common denominators in the development of said tradition, there are also prominent differences between these young poets. In fact, the argument could be made that their strength lies in the unique ways they are “coming to voice”, as bell hooks terms this process. The point is therefore made that it would be easy to categorize this clear new black feminist movement by assigning certain characteristics to it. Researchers should, however, remain vigilant against essentialisation and stay cognisant of the mantra of third wave feminism that difference, variety and even contradiction are part and parcel of the movement.
In conclusion, the poetry of these postcolonial feminists represents a new voice, or rather new voices, in Afrikaans. Not only do these voices speak for themselves in own, individualised terms, they introduce a feminist approach to Afrikaans poetry which gives a voice to marginalised women from all races.
Keywords: Afrikaans poetry; Ronelda S. Kamfer; Jolyn Phillips; postcolonial feminism; Shirmoney Rhode; third wave feminism