“Yet, large metros such as Johannesburg, eThekwini and Gqeberha continue to face severe wastewater management challenges, including failing treatment works and pollution. In Emfuleni in Gauteng, longstanding dysfunction in wastewater systems has caused chronic pollution of the Vaal River system and in urban areas, despite several national interventions. These are not isolated cases, but are symptomatic of the wider municipal system. Some municipalities – often supported by stronger technical capacity or regional water boards – perform relatively better, but these remain too few.”